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38
src/doc/trpl/comments.md
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@ -1,47 +1,45 @@
% Comments
Now that we have some functions, it's a good idea to learn about comments.
Now that we have some functions, it’s a good idea to learn about comments.
Comments are notes that you leave to other programmers to help explain things
about your code. The compiler mostly ignores them.
Rust has two kinds of comments that you should care about: *line comments*
and *doc comments*.
```{rust}
// Line comments are anything after '//' and extend to the end of the line.
```rust
// Line comments are anything after ‘//’ and extend to the end of the line.
let x = 5; // this is also a line comment.
// If you have a long explanation for something, you can put line comments next
// to each other. Put a space between the // and your comment so that it's
// to each other. Put a space between the // and your comment so that it’s
// more readable.
```
The other kind of comment is a doc comment. Doc comments use `///` instead of
`//`, and support Markdown notation inside:
```{rust}
/// `hello` is a function that prints a greeting that is personalized based on
/// the name given.
///
/// # Arguments
///
/// * `name` - The name of the person you'd like to greet.
```rust
/// Adds one to the number given.
///
/// # Examples
///
/// ```rust
/// let name = "Steve";
/// hello(name); // prints "Hello, Steve!"
/// ```
fn hello(name: &str) {
println!("Hello, {}!", name);
/// let five = 5;
///
/// assert_eq!(6, add_one(5));
/// ```
fn add_one(x: i32) -> i32 {
x + 1
}
```
When writing doc comments, adding sections for any arguments, return values,
and providing some examples of usage is very, very helpful. Don't worry about
the `&str`, we'll get to it soon.
When writing doc comments, providing some examples of usage is very, very
helpful. You’ll notice we’ve used a new macro here: `assert_eq!`. This compares
two values, and `panic!`s if they’re not equal to each other. It’s very helpful
in documentation. There’s another macro, `assert!`, which `panic!`s if the
value passed to it is `false`.
You can use the [`rustdoc`](documentation.html) tool to generate HTML documentation
from these doc comments.
from these doc comments, and also to run the code examples as tests!

136
src/doc/trpl/functions.md
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@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
% Functions
You've already seen one function so far, the `main` function:
Every Rust program has at least one function, the `main` function:
```rust
fn main() {
@ -8,16 +8,16 @@ fn main() {
```
This is the simplest possible function declaration. As we mentioned before,
`fn` says "this is a function," followed by the name, some parentheses because
`fn` says ‘this is a function’, followed by the name, some parentheses because
this function takes no arguments, and then some curly braces to indicate the
body. Here's a function named `foo`:
body. Here’s a function named `foo`:
```rust
fn foo() {
}
```
So, what about taking arguments? Here's a function that prints a number:
So, what about taking arguments? Here’s a function that prints a number:
```rust
fn print_number(x: i32) {
@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ fn print_number(x: i32) {
}
```
Here's a complete program that uses `print_number`:
Here’s a complete program that uses `print_number`:
```rust
fn main() {
@ -40,7 +40,7 @@ fn print_number(x: i32) {
As you can see, function arguments work very similar to `let` declarations:
you add a type to the argument name, after a colon.
Here's a complete program that adds two numbers together and prints them:
Here’s a complete program that adds two numbers together and prints them:
```rust
fn main() {
@ -58,7 +58,7 @@ as when you declare it.
Unlike `let`, you _must_ declare the types of function arguments. This does
not work:
```{rust,ignore}
```rust,ignore
fn print_sum(x, y) {
println!("sum is: {}", x + y);
}
@ -67,8 +67,8 @@ fn print_sum(x, y) {
You get this error:
```text
hello.rs:5:18: 5:19 expected one of `!`, `:`, or `@`, found `)`
hello.rs:5 fn print_number(x, y) {
expected one of `!`, `:`, or `@`, found `)`
fn print_number(x, y) {
```
This is a deliberate design decision. While full-program inference is possible,
@ -77,7 +77,7 @@ types explicitly is a best-practice. We agree that forcing functions to declare
types while allowing for inference inside of function bodies is a wonderful
sweet spot between full inference and no inference.
What about returning a value? Here's a function that adds one to an integer:
What about returning a value? Here’s a function that adds one to an integer:
```rust
fn add_one(x: i32) -> i32 {
@ -86,11 +86,11 @@ fn add_one(x: i32) -> i32 {
```
Rust functions return exactly one value, and you declare the type after an
"arrow," which is a dash (`-`) followed by a greater-than sign (`>`).
‘arrow’, which is a dash (`-`) followed by a greater-than sign (`>`). The last
line of a function determines what it returns. You’ll note the lack of a
semicolon here. If we added it in:
You'll note the lack of a semicolon here. If we added it in:
```{rust,ignore}
```rust,ignore
fn add_one(x: i32) -> i32 {
x + 1;
}
@ -109,24 +109,79 @@ help: consider removing this semicolon:
^
```
Remember our earlier discussions about semicolons and `()`? Our function claims
to return an `i32`, but with a semicolon, it would return `()` instead. Rust
realizes this probably isn't what we want, and suggests removing the semicolon.
This reveals two interesting things about Rust: it is an expression-based
language, and semicolons are different from semicolons in other ‘curly brace
and semicolon’-based languages. These two things are related.
This is very much like our `if` statement before: the result of the block
(`{}`) is the value of the expression. Other expression-oriented languages,
such as Ruby, work like this, but it's a bit unusual in the systems programming
world. When people first learn about this, they usually assume that it
introduces bugs. But because Rust's type system is so strong, and because unit
is its own unique type, we have never seen an issue where adding or removing a
semicolon in a return position would cause a bug.
## Expressions vs. Statements
Rust is primarily an expression-based language. There are only two kinds of
statements, and everything else is an expression.
So what's the difference? Expressions return a value, and statements do not.
That’s why we end up with ‘not all control paths return a value’ here: the
statement `x + 1;` doesn’t return a value. There are two kinds of statements in
Rust: ‘declaration statements’ and ‘expression statements’. Everything else is
an expression. Let’s talk about declaration statements first.
In some languages, variable bindings can be written as expressions, not just
statements. Like Ruby:
```ruby
x = y = 5
```
In Rust, however, using `let` to introduce a binding is _not_ an expression. The
following will produce a compile-time error:
```ignore
let x = (let y = 5); // expected identifier, found keyword `let`
```
The compiler is telling us here that it was expecting to see the beginning of
an expression, and a `let` can only begin a statement, not an expression.
Note that assigning to an already-bound variable (e.g. `y = 5`) is still an
expression, although its value is not particularly useful. Unlike other
languages where an assignment evaluates to the assigned value (e.g. `5` in the
previous example), in Rust the value of an assignment is an empty tuple `()`:
```
let mut y = 5;
let x = (y = 6); // x has the value `()`, not `6`
```
The second kind of statement in Rust is the *expression statement*. Its
purpose is to turn any expression into a statement. In practical terms, Rust's
grammar expects statements to follow other statements. This means that you use
semicolons to separate expressions from each other. This means that Rust
looks a lot like most other languages that require you to use semicolons
at the end of every line, and you will see semicolons at the end of almost
every line of Rust code you see.
What is this exception that makes us say "almost"? You saw it already, in this
code:
```rust
fn add_one(x: i32) -> i32 {
x + 1
}
```
Our function claims to return an `i32`, but with a semicolon, it would return
`()` instead. Rust realizes this probably isn’t what we want, and suggests
removing the semicolon in the error we saw before.
## Early returns
But what about early returns? Rust does have a keyword for that, `return`:
```rust
fn foo(x: i32) -> i32 {
if x < 5 { return x; }
return x;
// we never run this code!
x + 1
}
```
@ -136,33 +191,17 @@ style:
```rust
fn foo(x: i32) -> i32 {
if x < 5 { return x; }
return x + 1;
}
```
The previous definition without `return` may look a bit strange if you haven't
The previous definition without `return` may look a bit strange if you haven’t
worked in an expression-based language before, but it becomes intuitive over
time. If this were production code, we wouldn't write it in that way anyway,
we'd write this:
```rust
fn foo(x: i32) -> i32 {
if x < 5 {
x
} else {
x + 1
}
}
```
Because `if` is an expression, and it's the only expression in this function,
the value will be the result of the `if`.
time.
## Diverging functions
Rust has some special syntax for 'diverging functions', which are functions that
Rust has some special syntax for ‘diverging functions’, which are functions that
do not return:
```
@ -171,23 +210,18 @@ fn diverges() -> ! {
}
```
`panic!` is a macro, similar to `println!()` that we've already seen. Unlike
`panic!` is a macro, similar to `println!()` that we’ve already seen. Unlike
`println!()`, `panic!()` causes the current thread of execution to crash with
the given message.
Because this function will cause a crash, it will never return, and so it has
the type '`!`', which is read "diverges." A diverging function can be used
the type ‘`!`’, which is read ‘diverges’. A diverging function can be used
as any type:
```should_panic
# fn diverges() -> ! {
# panic!("This function never returns!");
# }
let x: i32 = diverges();
let x: String = diverges();
```
We don't have a good use for diverging functions yet, because they're used in
conjunction with other Rust features. But when you see `-> !` later, you'll
know what it's called.

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src/doc/trpl/structs.md
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% Structs
A struct is another form of a *record type*, just like a tuple. There's a
difference: structs give each element that they contain a name, called a
*field* or a *member*. Check it out:
Structs are a way of creating more complex datatypes. For example, if we were
doing calculations involving coordinates in 2D space, we would need both an `x`
and a `y` value:
```rust
let origin_x = 0;
let origin_y = 0;
```
A struct lets us combine these two into a single, unified datatype:
```rust
struct Point {
@ -17,7 +24,7 @@ fn main() {
}
```
There's a lot going on here, so let's break it down. We declare a struct with
There’s a lot going on here, so let’s break it down. We declare a struct with
the `struct` keyword, and then with a name. By convention, structs begin with a
capital letter and are also camel cased: `PointInSpace`, not `Point_In_Space`.
@ -31,7 +38,7 @@ notation: `origin.x`.
The values in structs are immutable by default, like other bindings in Rust.
Use `mut` to make them mutable:
```{rust}
```rust
struct Point {
x: i32,
y: i32,
@ -47,3 +54,36 @@ fn main() {
```
This will print `The point is at (5, 0)`.
Rust does not support field mutability at the language level, so you cannot
write something like this:
```rust,ignore
struct Point {
mut x: i32,
y: i32,
}
```
Mutability is a property of the binding, not of the structure itself. If you’re
used to field-level mutability, this may seem strange at first, but it
significantly simplifies things. It even lets you make things mutable for a short
time only:
```rust,ignore
struct Point {
x: i32,
y: i32,
}
fn main() {
let mut point = Point { x: 0, y: 0 };
point.x = 5;
let point = point; // this new binding can’t change now
point.y = 6; // this causes an error
}
```