Fix dead links in the guide and reorganize

This commit is contained in:
Alex Crichton 2015-01-08 10:27:03 -08:00
parent 483fca9fa5
commit 7541f82fab
43 changed files with 112 additions and 669 deletions

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@ -275,9 +275,8 @@ endif
docs: $(DOC_TARGETS)
compiler-docs: $(COMPILER_DOC_TARGETS)
trpl: tmp/trpl.ok
trpl: doc/book/index.html
tmp/trpl.ok: $(RUSTBOOK_EXE) $(wildcard $(S)/src/doc/trpl/*.md)
doc/book/index.html: $(RUSTBOOK_EXE) $(wildcard $(S)/src/doc/trpl/*.md)
$(Q)rm -rf doc/book
$(Q)$(RUSTBOOK) build $(S)src/doc/trpl doc/book
$(Q)touch $@

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@ -156,8 +156,8 @@ endef
$(foreach doc,$(DOCS), \
$(eval $(call DOCTEST,md-$(doc),$(S)src/doc/$(doc).md)))
$(foreach file,$(wildcard $(S)src/doc/trpl/src/*), \
$(eval $(call DOCTEST,$(file:$(S)src/doc/trpl/src/%.md=trpl-%),$(file))))
$(foreach file,$(wildcard $(S)src/doc/trpl/*.md), \
$(eval $(call DOCTEST,$(file:$(S)src/doc/trpl/%.md=trpl-%),$(file))))
######################################################################
# Main test targets

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@ -1,35 +1,36 @@
# Summary
* [I: The Basics](src/basic.md)
* [Installing Rust](src/installing-rust.md)
* [Hello, world!](src/hello-world.md)
* [Hello, Cargo!](src/hello-cargo.md)
* [Variable Bindings](src/variable-bindings.md)
* [If](src/if.md)
* [Functions](src/functions.md)
* [Comments](src/comments.md)
* [Compound Data Types](src/compound-data-types.md)
* [Match](src/match.md)
* [Looping](src/looping.md)
* [Strings](src/strings.md)
* [Arrays, Vectors, and Slices](src/arrays-vectors-and-slices.md)
* [Standard Input](src/standard-input.md)
* [Guessing Game](src/guessing-game.md)
* [II: Intermedite Rust](src/intermediate.md)
* [Crates and Modules](src/crates-and-modules.md)
* [Testing](src/testing.md)
* [Pointers](src/pointers.md)
* [Patterns](src/patterns.md)
* [Method Syntax](src/method-syntax.md)
* [Closures](src/closures.md)
* [Iterators](src/iterators.md)
* [Generics](src/generics.md)
* [Traits](src/traits.md)
* [Tasks](src/tasks.md)
* [Error Handling](src/error-handling.md)
* [III: Advanced Topics](src/advanced.md)
* [FFI](src/ffi.md)
* [Unsafe Code](src/unsafe.md)
* [Macros](src/macros.md)
* [Compiler Plugins](src/plugins.md)
* [Conclusion](src/conclusion.md)
* [I: The Basics](basic.md)
* [Installing Rust](installing-rust.md)
* [Hello, world!](hello-world.md)
* [Hello, Cargo!](hello-cargo.md)
* [Variable Bindings](variable-bindings.md)
* [If](if.md)
* [Functions](functions.md)
* [Comments](comments.md)
* [Compound Data Types](compound-data-types.md)
* [Match](match.md)
* [Looping](looping.md)
* [Strings](strings.md)
* [Arrays, Vectors, and Slices](arrays-vectors-and-slices.md)
* [Standard Input](standard-input.md)
* [Guessing Game](guessing-game.md)
* [II: Intermediate Rust](intermediate.md)
* [Crates and Modules](crates-and-modules.md)
* [Testing](testing.md)
* [Pointers](pointers.md)
* [Ownership](ownership.md)
* [Patterns](patterns.md)
* [Method Syntax](method-syntax.md)
* [Closures](closures.md)
* [Iterators](iterators.md)
* [Generics](generics.md)
* [Traits](traits.md)
* [Tasks](tasks.md)
* [Error Handling](error-handling.md)
* [III: Advanced Topics](advanced.md)
* [FFI](ffi.md)
* [Unsafe Code](unsafe.md)
* [Macros](macros.md)
* [Compiler Plugins](plugins.md)
* [Conclusion](conclusion.md)

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@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
# Arrays, Vectors, and Slices
% Arrays, Vectors, and Slices
Like many programming languages, Rust has list types to represent a sequence of
things. The most basic is the **array**, a fixed-size list of elements of the
@ -48,7 +48,7 @@ errant access is the source of many bugs in other systems programming
languages.
A **vector** is a dynamic or "growable" array, implemented as the standard
library type [`Vec<T>`](std/vec/) (we'll talk about what the `<T>` means
library type [`Vec<T>`](../std/vec/) (we'll talk about what the `<T>` means
later). Vectors are to arrays what `String` is to `&str`. You can create them
with the `vec!` macro:

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@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
# Closures
% Closures
So far, we've made lots of functions in Rust, but we've given them all names.
Rust also allows us to create anonymous functions. Rust's anonymous

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@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
# Comments
% Comments
Now that we have some functions, it's a good idea to learn about comments.
Comments are notes that you leave to other programmers to help explain things
@ -42,5 +42,5 @@ fn hello(name: &str) {
When writing doc comments, adding sections for any arguments, return values,
and providing some examples of usage is very, very helpful.
You can use the [`rustdoc`](rustdoc.html) tool to generate HTML documentation
You can use the [`rustdoc`](../rustdoc.html) tool to generate HTML documentation
from these doc comments.

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@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
# Compound Data Types
% Compound Data Types
Rust, like many programming languages, has a number of different data types
that are built-in. You've already done some simple work with integers and

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@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
# Functions
% Functions
You've already seen one function so far, the `main` function:

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@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
# Guessing Game
% Guessing Game
Okay! We've got the basics of Rust down. Let's write a bigger program.
@ -108,12 +108,12 @@ we do know that Rust has random number generation, but we don't know how to
use it.
Enter the docs. Rust has a page specifically to document the standard library.
You can find that page [here](std/index.html). There's a lot of information on
You can find that page [here](../std/index.html). There's a lot of information on
that page, but the best part is the search bar. Right up at the top, there's
a box that you can enter in a search term. The search is pretty primitive
right now, but is getting better all the time. If you type 'random' in that
box, the page will update to [this one](std/index.html?search=random). The very
first result is a link to [`std::rand::random`](std/rand/fn.random.html). If we
box, the page will update to [this one](../std/index.html?search=random). The very
first result is a link to [`std::rand::random`](../std/rand/fn.random.html). If we
click on that result, we'll be taken to its documentation page.
This page shows us a few things: the type signature of the function, some

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@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
# Hello, Cargo!
% Hello, Cargo!
[Cargo](http://crates.io) is a tool that Rustaceans use to help manage their
Rust projects. Cargo is currently in an alpha state, just like Rust, and so it

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@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
# Hello, world!
% Hello, world!
Now that you have Rust installed, let's write your first Rust program. It's
traditional to make your first program in any new language one that prints the

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@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
# `if`
% `if`
Rust's take on `if` is not particularly complex, but it's much more like the
`if` you'll find in a dynamically typed language than in a more traditional

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@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
# Installing Rust
% Installing Rust
The first step to using Rust is to install it! There are a number of ways to
install Rust, but the easiest is to use the `rustup` script. If you're on

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@ -336,4 +336,4 @@ can help you with. There are a number of really useful iterators, and you can
write your own as well. Iterators provide a safe, efficient way to manipulate
all kinds of lists. They're a little unusual at first, but if you play with
them, you'll get hooked. For a full list of the different iterators and
consumers, check out the [iterator module documentation](std/iter/index.html).
consumers, check out the [iterator module documentation](../std/iter/index.html).

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@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
# Looping
% Looping
Looping is the last basic construct that we haven't learned yet in Rust. Rust has
two main looping constructs: `for` and `while`.

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@ -507,7 +507,7 @@ When this library is loaded with `#[use_macros] extern crate`, only `m2` will
be imported.
The Rust Reference has a [listing of macro-related
attributes](reference.html#macro--and-plugin-related-attributes).
attributes](../reference.html#macro--and-plugin-related-attributes).
# The variable `$crate`
@ -567,7 +567,7 @@ intermediate states out, and passing the flag `--pretty expanded` as a
command-line argument to the compiler will show the result of expansion.
If Rust's macro system can't do what you need, you may want to write a
[compiler plugin](guide-plugin.html) instead. Compared to `macro_rules!`
[compiler plugin](plugin.html) instead. Compared to `macro_rules!`
macros, this is significantly more work, the interfaces are much less stable,
and the warnings about debugging apply ten-fold. In exchange you get the
flexibility of running arbitrary Rust code within the compiler. Syntax

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@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
# Match
% Match
Often, a simple `if`/`else` isn't enough, because you have more than two
possible options. Also, `else` conditions can get incredibly complicated, so

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@ -5,20 +5,20 @@
<p>
<b>Warning:</b> Plugins are an advanced, unstable feature! For many details,
the only available documentation is the <a
href="syntax/index.html"><code>libsyntax</code></a> and <a
href="rustc/index.html"><code>librustc</code></a> API docs, or even the source
href="../syntax/index.html"><code>libsyntax</code></a> and <a
href="../rustc/index.html"><code>librustc</code></a> API docs, or even the source
code itself. These internal compiler APIs are also subject to change at any
time.
</p>
<p>
For defining new syntax it is often much easier to use Rust's <a
href="guide-macros.html">built-in macro system</a>.
href="macros.html">built-in macro system</a>.
</p>
<p style="margin-bottom: 0">
The code in this document uses language features not covered in the Rust
Guide. See the <a href="reference.html">Reference Manual</a> for more
Guide. See the <a href="../reference.html">Reference Manual</a> for more
information.
</p>
@ -32,19 +32,19 @@ extend the compiler's behavior with new syntax extensions, lint checks, etc.
A plugin is a dynamic library crate with a designated "registrar" function that
registers extensions with `rustc`. Other crates can use these extensions by
loading the plugin crate with `#[plugin] extern crate`. See the
[`rustc::plugin`](rustc/plugin/index.html) documentation for more about the
[`rustc::plugin`](../rustc/plugin/index.html) documentation for more about the
mechanics of defining and loading a plugin.
Arguments passed as `#[plugin=...]` or `#[plugin(...)]` are not interpreted by
rustc itself. They are provided to the plugin through the `Registry`'s [`args`
method](rustc/plugin/registry/struct.Registry.html#method.args).
method](../rustc/plugin/registry/struct.Registry.html#method.args).
# Syntax extensions
Plugins can extend Rust's syntax in various ways. One kind of syntax extension
is the procedural macro. These are invoked the same way as [ordinary
macros](guide-macros.html), but the expansion is performed by arbitrary Rust
code that manipulates [syntax trees](syntax/ast/index.html) at
macros](macros.html), but the expansion is performed by arbitrary Rust
code that manipulates [syntax trees](../syntax/ast/index.html) at
compile time.
Let's write a plugin
@ -126,14 +126,13 @@ The advantages over a simple `fn(&str) -> uint` are:
a way to define new literal syntax for any data type.
In addition to procedural macros, you can define new
[`deriving`](reference.html#deriving)-like attributes and other kinds of
[`deriving`](../reference.html#deriving)-like attributes and other kinds of
extensions. See
[`Registry::register_syntax_extension`](rustc/plugin/registry/struct.Registry.html#method.register_syntax_extension)
[`Registry::register_syntax_extension`](../rustc/plugin/registry/struct.Registry.html#method.register_syntax_extension)
and the [`SyntaxExtension`
enum](http://doc.rust-lang.org/syntax/ext/base/enum.SyntaxExtension.html). For
a more involved macro example, see
[`src/libregex_macros/lib.rs`](https://github.com/rust-lang/rust/blob/master/src/libregex_macros/lib.rs)
in the Rust distribution.
[`regex_macros`](https://github.com/rust-lang/regex/blob/master/regex_macros/src/lib.rs).
## Tips and tricks
@ -147,7 +146,7 @@ variables of the same name (but different syntax contexts) are in play
in the same scope. In this case `--pretty expanded,hygiene` will tell
you about the syntax contexts.
You can use [`syntax::parse`](syntax/parse/index.html) to turn token trees into
You can use [`syntax::parse`](../syntax/parse/index.html) to turn token trees into
higher-level syntax elements like expressions:
```ignore
@ -163,23 +162,23 @@ Looking through [`libsyntax` parser
code](https://github.com/rust-lang/rust/blob/master/src/libsyntax/parse/parser.rs)
will give you a feel for how the parsing infrastructure works.
Keep the [`Span`s](syntax/codemap/struct.Span.html) of
Keep the [`Span`s](../syntax/codemap/struct.Span.html) of
everything you parse, for better error reporting. You can wrap
[`Spanned`](syntax/codemap/struct.Spanned.html) around
[`Spanned`](../syntax/codemap/struct.Spanned.html) around
your custom data structures.
Calling
[`ExtCtxt::span_fatal`](syntax/ext/base/struct.ExtCtxt.html#method.span_fatal)
[`ExtCtxt::span_fatal`](../syntax/ext/base/struct.ExtCtxt.html#method.span_fatal)
will immediately abort compilation. It's better to instead call
[`ExtCtxt::span_err`](syntax/ext/base/struct.ExtCtxt.html#method.span_err)
[`ExtCtxt::span_err`](../syntax/ext/base/struct.ExtCtxt.html#method.span_err)
and return
[`DummyResult`](syntax/ext/base/struct.DummyResult.html),
[`DummyResult`](../syntax/ext/base/struct.DummyResult.html),
so that the compiler can continue and find further errors.
The example above produced an integer literal using
[`AstBuilder::expr_uint`](syntax/ext/build/trait.AstBuilder.html#tymethod.expr_uint).
[`AstBuilder::expr_uint`](../syntax/ext/build/trait.AstBuilder.html#tymethod.expr_uint).
As an alternative to the `AstBuilder` trait, `libsyntax` provides a set of
[quasiquote macros](syntax/ext/quote/index.html). They are undocumented and
[quasiquote macros](../syntax/ext/quote/index.html). They are undocumented and
very rough around the edges. However, the implementation may be a good
starting point for an improved quasiquote as an ordinary plugin library.
@ -187,7 +186,7 @@ starting point for an improved quasiquote as an ordinary plugin library.
# Lint plugins
Plugins can extend [Rust's lint
infrastructure](reference.html#lint-check-attributes) with additional checks for
infrastructure](../reference.html#lint-check-attributes) with additional checks for
code style, safety, etc. You can see
[`src/test/auxiliary/lint_plugin_test.rs`](https://github.com/rust-lang/rust/blob/master/src/test/auxiliary/lint_plugin_test.rs)
for a full example, the core of which is reproduced here:
@ -236,11 +235,11 @@ foo.rs:4 fn lintme() { }
The components of a lint plugin are:
* one or more `declare_lint!` invocations, which define static
[`Lint`](rustc/lint/struct.Lint.html) structs;
[`Lint`](../rustc/lint/struct.Lint.html) structs;
* a struct holding any state needed by the lint pass (here, none);
* a [`LintPass`](rustc/lint/trait.LintPass.html)
* a [`LintPass`](../rustc/lint/trait.LintPass.html)
implementation defining how to check each syntax element. A single
`LintPass` may call `span_lint` for several different `Lint`s, but should
register them all through the `get_lints` method.
@ -252,7 +251,7 @@ mostly use the same infrastructure as lint plugins, and provide examples of how
to access type information.
Lints defined by plugins are controlled by the usual [attributes and compiler
flags](reference.html#lint-check-attributes), e.g. `#[allow(test_lint)]` or
flags](../reference.html#lint-check-attributes), e.g. `#[allow(test_lint)]` or
`-A test-lint`. These identifiers are derived from the first argument to
`declare_lint!`, with appropriate case and punctuation conversion.

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@ -409,7 +409,7 @@ test.rs:4 let y = &x;
As you might guess, this kind of analysis is complex for a human, and therefore
hard for a computer, too! There is an entire [guide devoted to references, ownership,
and lifetimes](guide-ownership.html) that goes into this topic in
and lifetimes](ownership.html) that goes into this topic in
great detail, so if you want the full details, check that out.
## Best practices
@ -542,7 +542,7 @@ with some improvements:
4. Rust enforces that no other writeable pointers alias to this heap memory,
which means writing to an invalid pointer is not possible.
See the section on references or the [ownership guide](guide-ownership.html)
See the section on references or the [ownership guide](ownership.html)
for more detail on how lifetimes work.
Using boxes and references together is very common. For example:
@ -780,6 +780,6 @@ Here's a quick rundown of Rust's pointer types:
# Related resources
* [API documentation for Box](std/boxed/index.html)
* [Ownership guide](guide-ownership.html)
* [API documentation for Box](../std/boxed/index.html)
* [Ownership guide](ownership.html)
* [Cyclone paper on regions](http://www.cs.umd.edu/projects/cyclone/papers/cyclone-regions.pdf), which inspired Rust's lifetime system

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@ -1,565 +0,0 @@
% The Rust References and Lifetimes Guide
# Introduction
References are one of the more flexible and powerful tools available in
Rust. They can point anywhere: into the heap, stack, and even into the
interior of another data structure. A reference is as flexible as a C pointer
or C++ reference.
Unlike C and C++ compilers, the Rust compiler includes special static
checks that ensure that programs use references safely.
Despite their complete safety, a reference's representation at runtime
is the same as that of an ordinary pointer in a C program. They introduce zero
overhead. The compiler does all safety checks at compile time.
Although references have rather elaborate theoretical underpinnings
(e.g. region pointers), the core concepts will be familiar to anyone
who has worked with C or C++. The best way to explain how they are
used—and their limitations—is probably just to work through several examples.
# By example
References, sometimes known as *borrowed pointers*, are only valid for
a limited duration. References never claim any kind of ownership
over the data that they point to. Instead, they are used for cases
where you would like to use data for a short time.
Consider a simple struct type `Point`:
~~~
struct Point {x: f64, y: f64}
~~~
We can use this simple definition to allocate points in many different ways. For
example, in this code, each of these local variables contains a point,
but allocated in a different place:
~~~
# struct Point {x: f64, y: f64}
let on_the_stack : Point = Point {x: 3.0, y: 4.0};
let on_the_heap : Box<Point> = box Point {x: 7.0, y: 9.0};
~~~
Suppose we wanted to write a procedure that computed the distance between any
two points, no matter where they were stored. One option is to define a function
that takes two arguments of type `Point`—that is, it takes the points by value.
But if we define it this way, calling the function will cause the points to be
copied. For points, this is probably not so bad, but often copies are
expensive. So we'd like to define a function that takes the points just as
a reference.
~~~
# use std::num::Float;
# struct Point {x: f64, y: f64}
# fn sqrt(f: f64) -> f64 { 0.0 }
fn compute_distance(p1: &Point, p2: &Point) -> f64 {
let x_d = p1.x - p2.x;
let y_d = p1.y - p2.y;
(x_d * x_d + y_d * y_d).sqrt()
}
~~~
Now we can call `compute_distance()`:
~~~
# struct Point {x: f64, y: f64}
# let on_the_stack : Point = Point{x: 3.0, y: 4.0};
# let on_the_heap : Box<Point> = box Point{x: 7.0, y: 9.0};
# fn compute_distance(p1: &Point, p2: &Point) -> f64 { 0.0 }
compute_distance(&on_the_stack, &*on_the_heap);
~~~
Here, the `&` operator takes the address of the variable
`on_the_stack`; this is because `on_the_stack` has the type `Point`
(that is, a struct value) and we have to take its address to get a
value. We also call this _borrowing_ the local variable
`on_the_stack`, because we have created an alias: that is, another
name for the same data.
Likewise, in the case of `on_the_heap`,
the `&` operator is used in conjunction with the `*` operator
to take a reference to the contents of the box.
Whenever a caller lends data to a callee, there are some limitations on what
the caller can do with the original. For example, if the contents of a
variable have been lent out, you cannot send that variable to another task. In
addition, the compiler will reject any code that might cause the borrowed
value to be freed or overwrite its component fields with values of different
types (I'll get into what kinds of actions those are shortly). This rule
should make intuitive sense: you must wait for a borrower to return the value
that you lent it (that is, wait for the reference to go out of scope)
before you can make full use of it again.
# Other uses for the & operator
In the previous example, the value `on_the_stack` was defined like so:
~~~
# struct Point {x: f64, y: f64}
let on_the_stack: Point = Point {x: 3.0, y: 4.0};
~~~
This declaration means that code can only pass `Point` by value to other
functions. As a consequence, we had to explicitly take the address of
`on_the_stack` to get a reference. Sometimes however it is more
convenient to move the & operator into the definition of `on_the_stack`:
~~~
# struct Point {x: f64, y: f64}
let on_the_stack2: &Point = &Point {x: 3.0, y: 4.0};
~~~
Applying `&` to an rvalue (non-assignable location) is just a convenient
shorthand for creating a temporary and taking its address. A more verbose
way to write the same code is:
~~~
# struct Point {x: f64, y: f64}
let tmp = Point {x: 3.0, y: 4.0};
let on_the_stack2 : &Point = &tmp;
~~~
# Taking the address of fields
The `&` operator is not limited to taking the address of
local variables. It can also take the address of fields or
individual array elements. For example, consider this type definition
for `Rectangle`:
~~~
struct Point {x: f64, y: f64} // as before
struct Size {w: f64, h: f64} // as before
struct Rectangle {origin: Point, size: Size}
~~~
Now, as before, we can define rectangles in a few different ways:
~~~
# struct Point {x: f64, y: f64}
# struct Size {w: f64, h: f64} // as before
# struct Rectangle {origin: Point, size: Size}
let rect_stack = &Rectangle {origin: Point {x: 1.0, y: 2.0},
size: Size {w: 3.0, h: 4.0}};
let rect_heap = box Rectangle {origin: Point {x: 5.0, y: 6.0},
size: Size {w: 3.0, h: 4.0}};
~~~
In each case, we can extract out individual subcomponents with the `&`
operator. For example, I could write:
~~~
# struct Point {x: f64, y: f64} // as before
# struct Size {w: f64, h: f64} // as before
# struct Rectangle {origin: Point, size: Size}
# let rect_stack = &Rectangle {origin: Point {x: 1.0, y: 2.0}, size: Size {w: 3.0, h: 4.0}};
# let rect_heap = box Rectangle {origin: Point {x: 5.0, y: 6.0}, size: Size {w: 3.0, h: 4.0}};
# fn compute_distance(p1: &Point, p2: &Point) -> f64 { 0.0 }
compute_distance(&rect_stack.origin, &rect_heap.origin);
~~~
which would borrow the field `origin` from the rectangle on the stack
as well as from the owned box, and then compute the distance between them.
# Lifetimes
Weve seen a few examples of borrowing data. To this point, weve glossed
over issues of safety. As stated in the introduction, at runtime a reference
is simply a pointer, nothing more. Therefore, avoiding C's problems with
dangling pointers requires a compile-time safety check.
The basis for the check is the notion of _lifetimes_. A lifetime is a
static approximation of the span of execution during which the pointer
is valid: it always corresponds to some expression or block within the
program.
The compiler will only allow a borrow *if it can guarantee that the data will
not be reassigned or moved for the lifetime of the pointer*. This does not
necessarily mean that the data is stored in immutable memory. For example,
the following function is legal:
~~~
# fn some_condition() -> bool { true }
# struct Foo { f: int }
fn example3() -> int {
let mut x = box Foo {f: 3};
if some_condition() {
let y = &x.f; // -+ L
return *y; // |
} // -+
x = box Foo {f: 4};
// ...
# return 0;
}
~~~
Here, the interior of the variable `x` is being borrowed
and `x` is declared as mutable. However, the compiler can prove that
`x` is not assigned anywhere in the lifetime L of the variable
`y`. Therefore, it accepts the function, even though `x` is mutable
and in fact is mutated later in the function.
It may not be clear why we are so concerned about mutating a borrowed
variable. The reason is that the runtime system frees any box
_as soon as its owning reference changes or goes out of
scope_. Therefore, a program like this is illegal (and would be
rejected by the compiler):
~~~ {.ignore}
fn example3() -> int {
let mut x = box X {f: 3};
let y = &x.f;
x = box X {f: 4}; // Error reported here.
*y
}
~~~
To make this clearer, consider this diagram showing the state of
memory immediately before the re-assignment of `x`:
~~~ {.text}
Stack Exchange Heap
x +-------------+
| box {f:int} | ----+
y +-------------+ |
| &int | ----+
+-------------+ | +---------+
+--> | f: 3 |
+---------+
~~~
Once the reassignment occurs, the memory will look like this:
~~~ {.text}
Stack Exchange Heap
x +-------------+ +---------+
| box {f:int} | -------> | f: 4 |
y +-------------+ +---------+
| &int | ----+
+-------------+ | +---------+
+--> | (freed) |
+---------+
~~~
Here you can see that the variable `y` still points at the old `f`
property of Foo, which has been freed.
In fact, the compiler can apply the same kind of reasoning to any
memory that is (uniquely) owned by the stack frame. So we could
modify the previous example to introduce additional owned pointers
and structs, and the compiler will still be able to detect possible
mutations. This time, we'll use an analogy to illustrate the concept.
~~~ {.ignore}
fn example3() -> int {
struct House { owner: Box<Person> }
struct Person { age: int }
let mut house = box House {
owner: box Person {age: 30}
};
let owner_age = &house.owner.age;
house = box House {owner: box Person {age: 40}}; // Error reported here.
house.owner = box Person {age: 50}; // Error reported here.
*owner_age
}
~~~
In this case, two errors are reported, one when the variable `house` is
modified and another when `house.owner` is modified. Either modification would
invalidate the pointer `owner_age`.
# Borrowing and enums
The previous example showed that the type system forbids any mutations
of owned boxed values while they are being borrowed. In general, the type
system also forbids borrowing a value as mutable if it is already being
borrowed - either as a mutable reference or an immutable one. This restriction
prevents pointers from pointing into freed memory. There is one other
case where the compiler must be very careful to ensure that pointers
remain valid: pointers into the interior of an `enum`.
Lets look at the following `shape` type that can represent both rectangles
and circles:
~~~
struct Point {x: f64, y: f64}; // as before
struct Size {w: f64, h: f64}; // as before
enum Shape {
Circle(Point, f64), // origin, radius
Rectangle(Point, Size) // upper-left, dimensions
}
~~~
Now we might write a function to compute the area of a shape. This
function takes a reference to a shape, to avoid the need for
copying.
~~~
# struct Point {x: f64, y: f64}; // as before
# struct Size {w: f64, h: f64}; // as before
# enum Shape {
# Circle(Point, f64), // origin, radius
# Rectangle(Point, Size) // upper-left, dimensions
# }
fn compute_area(shape: &Shape) -> f64 {
match *shape {
Shape::Circle(_, radius) => std::f64::consts::PI * radius * radius,
Shape::Rectangle(_, ref size) => size.w * size.h
}
}
~~~
The first case matches against circles. Here, the pattern extracts the
radius from the shape variant and the action uses it to compute the
area of the circle.
The second match is more interesting. Here we match against a
rectangle and extract its size: but rather than copy the `size`
struct, we use a by-reference binding to create a pointer to it. In
other words, a pattern binding like `ref size` binds the name `size`
to a pointer of type `&size` into the _interior of the enum_.
To make this more clear, let's look at a diagram of memory layout in
the case where `shape` points at a rectangle:
~~~ {.text}
Stack Memory
+-------+ +---------------+
| shape | ------> | rectangle( |
+-------+ | {x: f64, |
| size | -+ | y: f64}, |
+-------+ +----> | {w: f64, |
| h: f64}) |
+---------------+
~~~
Here you can see that rectangular shapes are composed of five words of
memory. The first is a tag indicating which variant this enum is
(`rectangle`, in this case). The next two words are the `x` and `y`
fields for the point and the remaining two are the `w` and `h` fields
for the size. The binding `size` is then a pointer into the inside of
the shape.
Perhaps you can see where the danger lies: if the shape were somehow
to be reassigned, perhaps to a circle, then although the memory used
to store that shape value would still be valid, _it would have a
different type_! The following diagram shows what memory would look
like if code overwrote `shape` with a circle:
~~~ {.text}
Stack Memory
+-------+ +---------------+
| shape | ------> | circle( |
+-------+ | {x: f64, |
| size | -+ | y: f64}, |
+-------+ +----> | f64) |
| |
+---------------+
~~~
As you can see, the `size` pointer would be pointing at a `f64`
instead of a struct. This is not good: dereferencing the second field
of a `f64` as if it were a struct with two fields would be a memory
safety violation.
So, in fact, for every `ref` binding, the compiler will impose the
same rules as the ones we saw for borrowing the interior of an owned
box: it must be able to guarantee that the `enum` will not be
overwritten for the duration of the borrow. In fact, the compiler
would accept the example we gave earlier. The example is safe because
the shape pointer has type `&Shape`, which means "reference to
immutable memory containing a `shape`". If, however, the type of that
pointer were `&mut Shape`, then the ref binding would be ill-typed.
Just as with owned boxes, the compiler will permit `ref` bindings
into data owned by the stack frame even if the data are mutable,
but otherwise it requires that the data reside in immutable memory.
# Returning references
So far, all of the examples we have looked at, use references in a
“downward” direction. That is, a method or code block creates a
reference, then uses it within the same scope. It is also
possible to return references as the result of a function, but
as we'll see, doing so requires some explicit annotation.
We could write a subroutine like this:
~~~
struct Point {x: f64, y: f64}
fn get_x<'r>(p: &'r Point) -> &'r f64 { &p.x }
~~~
Here, the function `get_x()` returns a pointer into the structure it
was given. The type of the parameter (`&'r Point`) and return type
(`&'r f64`) both use a new syntactic form that we have not seen so
far. Here the identifier `r` names the lifetime of the pointer
explicitly. So in effect, this function declares that it takes a
pointer with lifetime `r` and returns a pointer with that same
lifetime.
In general, it is only possible to return references if they
are derived from a parameter to the procedure. In that case, the
pointer result will always have the same lifetime as one of the
parameters; named lifetimes indicate which parameter that
is.
In the previous code samples, function parameter types did not include a
lifetime name. The compiler simply creates a fresh name for the lifetime
automatically: that is, the lifetime name is guaranteed to refer to a distinct
lifetime from the lifetimes of all other parameters.
Named lifetimes that appear in function signatures are conceptually
the same as the other lifetimes we have seen before, but they are a bit
abstract: they dont refer to a specific expression within `get_x()`,
but rather to some expression within the *caller of `get_x()`*. The
lifetime `r` is actually a kind of *lifetime parameter*: it is defined
by the caller to `get_x()`, just as the value for the parameter `p` is
defined by that caller.
In any case, whatever the lifetime of `r` is, the pointer produced by
`&p.x` always has the same lifetime as `p` itself: a pointer to a
field of a struct is valid as long as the struct is valid. Therefore,
the compiler accepts the function `get_x()`.
In general, if you borrow a struct or box to create a
reference, it will only be valid within the function
and cannot be returned. This is why the typical way to return references
is to take references as input (the only other case in
which it can be legal to return a reference is if it
points at a static constant).
# Named lifetimes
Lifetimes can be named and referenced. For example, the special lifetime
`'static`, which does not go out of scope, can be used to create global
variables and communicate between tasks (see the manual for use cases).
## Parameter Lifetimes
Named lifetimes allow for grouping of parameters by lifetime.
For example, consider this function:
~~~
# struct Point {x: f64, y: f64}; // as before
# struct Size {w: f64, h: f64}; // as before
# enum Shape {
# Circle(Point, f64), // origin, radius
# Rectangle(Point, Size) // upper-left, dimensions
# }
# fn compute_area(shape: &Shape) -> f64 { 0.0 }
fn select<'r, T>(shape: &'r Shape, threshold: f64,
a: &'r T, b: &'r T) -> &'r T {
if compute_area(shape) > threshold {a} else {b}
}
~~~
This function takes three references and assigns each the same
lifetime `r`. In practice, this means that, in the caller, the
lifetime `r` will be the *intersection of the lifetime of the three
region parameters*. This may be overly conservative, as in this
example:
~~~
# struct Point {x: f64, y: f64}; // as before
# struct Size {w: f64, h: f64}; // as before
# enum Shape {
# Circle(Point, f64), // origin, radius
# Rectangle(Point, Size) // upper-left, dimensions
# }
# fn compute_area(shape: &Shape) -> f64 { 0.0 }
# fn select<'r, T>(shape: &Shape, threshold: f64,
# a: &'r T, b: &'r T) -> &'r T {
# if compute_area(shape) > threshold {a} else {b}
# }
// -+ r
fn select_based_on_unit_circle<'r, T>( // |-+ B
threshold: f64, a: &'r T, b: &'r T) -> &'r T { // | |
// | |
let shape = Shape::Circle(Point {x: 0., y: 0.}, 1.); // | |
select(&shape, threshold, a, b) // | |
} // |-+
// -+
~~~
In this call to `select()`, the lifetime of the first parameter shape
is B, the function body. Both of the second two parameters `a` and `b`
share the same lifetime, `r`, which is a lifetime parameter of
`select_based_on_unit_circle()`. The caller will infer the
intersection of these two lifetimes as the lifetime of the returned
value, and hence the return value of `select()` will be assigned a
lifetime of B. This will in turn lead to a compilation error, because
`select_based_on_unit_circle()` is supposed to return a value with the
lifetime `r`.
To address this, we can modify the definition of `select()` to
distinguish the lifetime of the first parameter from the lifetime of
the latter two. After all, the first parameter is not being
returned. Here is how the new `select()` might look:
~~~
# struct Point {x: f64, y: f64}; // as before
# struct Size {w: f64, h: f64}; // as before
# enum Shape {
# Circle(Point, f64), // origin, radius
# Rectangle(Point, Size) // upper-left, dimensions
# }
# fn compute_area(shape: &Shape) -> f64 { 0.0 }
fn select<'r, 'tmp, T>(shape: &'tmp Shape, threshold: f64,
a: &'r T, b: &'r T) -> &'r T {
if compute_area(shape) > threshold {a} else {b}
}
~~~
Here you can see that `shape`'s lifetime is now named `tmp`. The
parameters `a`, `b`, and the return value all have the lifetime `r`.
However, since the lifetime `tmp` is not returned, it would be more
concise to just omit the named lifetime for `shape` altogether:
~~~
# struct Point {x: f64, y: f64}; // as before
# struct Size {w: f64, h: f64}; // as before
# enum Shape {
# Circle(Point, f64), // origin, radius
# Rectangle(Point, Size) // upper-left, dimensions
# }
# fn compute_area(shape: &Shape) -> f64 { 0.0 }
fn select<'r, T>(shape: &Shape, threshold: f64,
a: &'r T, b: &'r T) -> &'r T {
if compute_area(shape) > threshold {a} else {b}
}
~~~
This is equivalent to the previous definition.
## Labeled Control Structures
Named lifetime notation can also be used to control the flow of execution:
~~~
'h: for i in range(0u, 10) {
'g: loop {
if i % 2 == 0 { continue 'h; }
if i == 9 { break 'h; }
break 'g;
}
}
~~~
> *Note:* Labelled breaks are not currently supported within `while` loops.
Named labels are hygienic and can be used safely within macros.
See the macros guide section on hygiene for more details.
# Conclusion
So there you have it: a (relatively) brief tour of the lifetime
system. For more details, we refer to the (yet to be written) reference
document on references, which will explain the full notation
and give more examples.

View File

@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
# Standard Input
% Standard Input
Getting input from the keyboard is pretty easy, but uses some things
we haven't seen before. Here's a simple program that reads some input,

View File

@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
# Strings
% Strings
Strings are an important concept for any programmer to master. Rust's string
handling system is a bit different from other languages, due to its systems

View File

@ -369,7 +369,7 @@ Unlike `spawn`, the function spawned using `try` may return a value, which
child thread terminates successfully, `try` will return an `Ok` result; if the
child thread panics, `try` will return an `Error` result.
[`Result`]: std/result/index.html
[`Result`]: ../std/result/index.html
> *Note:* A panicked thread does not currently produce a useful error
> value (`try` always returns `Err(())`). In the

View File

@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ block which allows the programmer to dodge some of the compiler's
checks and do a wide range of operations, such as:
- dereferencing [raw pointers](#raw-pointers)
- calling a function via FFI ([covered by the FFI guide](guide-ffi.html))
- calling a function via FFI ([covered by the FFI guide](ffi.html))
- casting between types bitwise (`transmute`, aka "reinterpret cast")
- [inline assembly](#inline-assembly)
@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ build safe interfaces.
## References
One of Rust's biggest features is memory safety. This is achieved in
part via [the ownership system](guide-ownership.html), which is how the
part via [the ownership system](ownership.html), which is how the
compiler can guarantee that every `&` reference is always valid, and,
for example, never pointing to freed memory.
@ -504,7 +504,7 @@ shouldn't get triggered.
The second of these three functions, `eh_personality`, is used by the
failure mechanisms of the compiler. This is often mapped to GCC's
personality function (see the
[libstd implementation](std/rt/unwind/index.html) for more
[libstd implementation](../std/rt/unwind/index.html) for more
information), but crates which do not trigger a panic can be assured
that this function is never called. The final function, `panic_fmt`, is
also used by the failure mechanisms of the compiler.
@ -517,7 +517,7 @@ also used by the failure mechanisms of the compiler.
With the above techniques, we've got a bare-metal executable running some Rust
code. There is a good deal of functionality provided by the standard library,
however, that is necessary to be productive in Rust. If the standard library is
not sufficient, then [libcore](core/index.html) is designed to be used
not sufficient, then [libcore](../core/index.html) is designed to be used
instead.
The core library has very few dependencies and is much more portable than the

View File

@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
# Variable bindings
% Variable bindings
The first thing we'll learn about are 'variable bindings.' They look like this:
@ -170,5 +170,5 @@ arguments we pass to functions and macros, if you're passing more than one.
When you just use the curly braces, Rust will attempt to display the
value in a meaningful way by checking out its type. If you want to specify the
format in a more detailed manner, there are a [wide number of options
available](std/fmt/index.html). For now, we'll just stick to the default:
available](../std/fmt/index.html). For now, we'll just stick to the default:
integers aren't very complicated to print.

View File

@ -29,8 +29,8 @@ pub struct Book {
/// A depth-first iterator over a book.
pub struct BookItems<'a> {
cur_items: &'a [BookItem],
cur_idx: uint,
stack: Vec<(&'a [BookItem], uint)>,
cur_idx: usize,
stack: Vec<(&'a [BookItem], usize)>,
}
impl<'a> Iterator for BookItems<'a> {
@ -80,7 +80,7 @@ impl Book {
pub fn parse_summary<R: Reader>(input: R, src: &Path) -> Result<Book, Vec<String>> {
fn collapse(stack: &mut Vec<BookItem>,
top_items: &mut Vec<BookItem>,
to_level: uint) {
to_level: usize) {
loop {
if stack.len() < to_level { return }
if stack.len() == 1 {
@ -141,7 +141,7 @@ pub fn parse_summary<R: Reader>(input: R, src: &Path) -> Result<Book, Vec<String
};
let level = cap.name("indent").unwrap().chars().map(|c| {
match c {
' ' => 1u,
' ' => 1us,
'\t' => 4,
_ => unreachable!()
}

9
src/rustbook/build.rs Executable file → Normal file
View File

@ -130,8 +130,8 @@ fn render(book: &Book, tgt: &Path) -> CliResult<()> {
];
let output_result = rustdoc::main_args(rustdoc_args);
if output_result != 0 {
let message = format!("Could not execute `rustdoc`: {}", output_result);
let message = format!("Could not execute `rustdoc` with {:?}: {}",
rustdoc_args, output_result);
return Err(box message as Box<Error>);
}
}
@ -172,12 +172,13 @@ impl Subcommand for Build {
match book::parse_summary(summary, &src) {
Ok(book) => {
// execute rustdoc on the whole book
let _ = render(&book, &tgt).map_err(|err| {
try!(render(&book, &tgt).map_err(|err| {
term.err(&format!("error: {}", err.description())[]);
err.detail().map(|detail| {
term.err(&format!("detail: {}", detail)[]);
})
});
err
}))
}
Err(errors) => {
for err in errors.into_iter() {

View File

@ -56,6 +56,12 @@ impl Error for String {
}
}
impl<'a> Error for Box<Error + 'a> {
fn description(&self) -> &str { (**self).description() }
fn detail(&self) -> Option<&str> { (**self).detail() }
fn cause(&self) -> Option<&Error> { (**self).cause() }
}
impl FromError<()> for () {
fn from_err(_: ()) -> () { () }
}

0
src/rustbook/main.rs Executable file → Normal file
View File

View File

@ -11,6 +11,7 @@
//! An abstraction of the terminal. Eventually, provide color and
//! verbosity support. For now, just a wrapper around stdout/stderr.
use std::os;
use std::io::stdio;
pub struct Term {
@ -27,5 +28,6 @@ impl Term {
pub fn err(&mut self, msg: &str) {
// swallow any errors
let _ = self.err.write_line(msg);
os::set_exit_status(101);
}
}